the landscape of mental-health modelling is as vast as it is rich with pioneers, stories, change and success
In a world defined by levels of being, negotiating life’s challenges can be hard. In particular, the journey through a mental-health system can be fraught with difficulty and terrifying uncertainty whilst for some, the experience is smoother and relatively clearer. Either way, paths well-worn by those before are products of trial, error and complex policies while the gradual process of de-hospitalisation led to a dispersion of patients in areas such as shelters, nursing homes and unfortunately jails. As a result, it’s been said that the transition influenced a long-standing, mental-health crisis as seen in the abstract of a 2022 study, ‘The Lasting Impact of Deinstitutionalisation: Policing and the Mental Health Crisis.’
The PBS documentary and news investigation series, Frontline, also tackled this in a 2005 article on its website. ‘Deinstitutionalisation: A Psychiatric “Titanic”’ referenced chapters from the book, ‘Out of the Shadows: Confronting America’s Mental Illness Crisis’, by Dr E. Fuller Torrey and noted that in 1955, just over half-a-million mentally-ill patients classified as severe, occupied public psychiatric hospitals. By 1994, that figure had dropped to a little over 71,000.
Worldwide, the process of care in the community has galloped over time, too, but changes in definition, efficiency and quality are stark. In 1983, for example, research was undertaken to understand this and ‘Deinstitutionalization In International Perspective: Variations on a Theme’ was published in The International Journal of Mental Health, while stating:
‘Deinstitutionalisation has become an international fact of life in the 1980s.’
‘3. The process of deinstitutionalization involves the adaptation of mental health institutions to the sociopolitical and economic environments of each country. National variations in the process of deinstitutionalisation reflect differences in culture and ideology.’
Of course they do, and in the UK the idea of person-centred care and psychiatric needs evolved in its own time; yet, as long ago as 1954, the Percy Commission was established by a then Conservative government, led by Winston Churchill. The matter was a challenging one as the World Health Organisation recognised at the time and voiced in a report, on global legislation and psychiatric treatment:
‘What is required, is to give these patients facilities for treatment and the possibility of guardianship and medical supervision in accordance with their medical needs and social inadequacy. The different methods of solving these problems are extremely complex since they must vary according to the social structure of each country.’
Well, whilst the term ‘social inadequacy’ might be replaced nowadays, the commission’s findings nevertheless laid out a basic and ground-breaking proposal in which consideration had to reflect an individual’s freedom upon intervention, that was comparable to those with other health needs. Naturally, this couldn’t be at the expense of public safety with the report maintaining that a growth in community care services, could and should support treatment of psychiatric disorders away from traditional institutions. In addition to that, the remit of the newly-formed National Health Service (NHS) should widen to include psychiatric care, while local authorities should source some type of shelter for patients. It was a socioeconomic transplant.
There was impetus to the report, too, where in a parliamentary review on the findings, the Secretary to the Ministry of Health revealed suffocating figures, over the pressure on services:
‘The demands on our mental hospitals have increased greatly during the last few years, and the admission rate has increased from 59,000 in 1949 (37,000 of them being voluntary patients) to 88,000 in 1956, including 69,000 voluntary patients.’
So, just two years later, the UK implemented the 1959 Mental Health Act thus cementing the Percy report’s guidance and at the top of the document, it states:
‘An Act to repeal the Lunacy and Mental Treatment Acts, 1890 to 1930, and the Mental Deficiency Acts, 1913 to 1938, and to make fresh provision with respect to the treatment and care of mentally disordered persons and with respect to their property and affairs.’
29th July 1959
Clearly, the arcane language of an era had to be addressed as well and in time, the 59’ legislation was followed by provision for compulsory care in the 1983 Mental Health Act; the 2005 Mental Capacity Act; the 2007 Mental Health Amendment Act; the 2014 Care Act; the 2017 Review of the Mental Health Act 1983; the 2018 Modernising the Mental Health Act and the 2019 NHS Long-term Plan. All of these statutes have since helped to modernise treatment, social attitudes and as a result, the overall experience of those dealing with poor mental health.
Prior to and throughout all this, though, mental-health modelling took a variety of forms with perspectives and resolutions that are not always mutually exclusive. So, in looking back, the earliest ideas around emotional health were formed by the Ancient Greeks who saw it in pathological and lifestyle terms. Meanwhile and over time, divine explanations carried darker undertones with mental illness often attributed to malevolent, preternatural forces. In the Middle Ages, for instance, the Malleus Maleficarum took this to another level as a book written by a German professor of theology, at the University of Salzberg. In terms of literary influence, it sits near the top having classified the practice of witchcraft into doctrine that went on to persecute and prosecute women accused of satanic sorcery across Europe, for the next two hundred years.
Fast forward to modernity, however, and the medical model of poor mental health falls into different categories. So, as a definition: ‘The MEDICAL model relies on scientific proof of a pathological process or treatment interventions that can be replicated in other studies’ – while ‘The BIOMEDICAL model suggests that mental disorders are brain diseases and emphasizes pharmacological treatment to target presumed biological abnormalities.’ Indistinguishable to all intents and purposes, these models have dominated psychiatry for decades, and in a 2022 interview with The Psychologist magazine, Dr James Davies, psychotherapist and anthropologist at the University of Roehampton, said:
‘The medical model broadly sees suffering as an index of internal ‘dysfunction’ (as defined by the DSM), rather than, as say, the organism’s legitimate protest against psycho, social or relational predicaments that hold us back – predicaments that our medicalised interventions were never designed to treat. In other words, the medical model is structurally and linguistically configured to dismiss the often deeply purposeful nature of emotional pain; pain whose functional meaning is revealed when you care to look deeply enough.’
So, this model represents a clearly defined pathway from presentation and investigation to diagnosis and treatment which in itself has maintained a prominent grip, through research and development. The rise of psychiatric pharmacology after World War Two then helped to cement its position, as a patient’s experience of illness changed. For instance, with the Australian psychiatrist, John Cade’s development of lithium carbonate in 1949: what used to be called Manic Depression suddenly became treatable, in a sedative way. At the same time and with new medications: symptoms of various conditions were reduced to varying degrees of debilitation.
Yet, over a lifetime there are critical intersections of biology, sociology and psychology which when put together, form the BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL model of mental illness. Here and in line with Dr James Davies’ view, the idea that poor mental health is reducible to mere biological functioning is challenged structurally in looking at the impact of our physical and social environments, on perception and anatomy.
Expanded by Dr George L Engels in 1977, this multi-levelled, socioeconomic approach considers ‘disturbances’ at atomic and molecular levels through to organs, a nervous system and a person while viewing community, national and biospheric layers, too. In applying this to psychological disorder and distress, it’s a way of examining personal and social histories as aetiologies. So, whether through childhood or adult trauma or setbacks, the biopsychosocial approach assesses the interplay between the three tiers. As a 2004 research paper, recalls:
‘Philosophically, it [the biopsychosocial model] is a way of understanding how suffering, disease and illness are affected by multiple levels of organization, from the societal to the molecular. At the practical level, it is a way of understanding the patient’s subjective experience as an essential contributor to accurate diagnosis, health outcomes and humane care.’
So, in then bridging any sort of gap between the biopsychosocial and PSYCHOLOGICAL models of mental health: Dr Roy R Grinker, a former neurologist and professor of psychiatry at the University of Chicago, once said in a 1966 lecture:
‘As a result, modern psychoanalysis is a biopsychosocial theoretical structure. The frame of reference of a biopsychosocial point of view has been utilized without sacrificing any of the dynamic concepts which psychoanalysis has contributed to psychiatry.’
That psychoanalysis was, of course, pioneered by Sigmund Freud and whilst the evolution of ideas around the unconscious mind and defence mechanisms changed the way we see ourselves: some of Freud’s ideas which were borne of a time and it seems certain traits within the man himself, have been challenged and discredited. One of his detractors was a German psychoanalyst named Karen Horney, who challenged his pronouncements on women and also the underlying mechanisms of internal conflict.
Still, psychoanalysis remains a contender in the psychological model with it’s place forever in peril perhaps, due to a lack of verifiable evidence. It’s not hard to see why when the nature of psychoanalysis with its subjective introspection, makes it harder to objectively qualify and quantify data. So, your truth of you and how you see yourself is going to be hard to replicate in someone else, leaving measured outcomes problematic.
‘Almost no scientific theory or medical treatment that is a century old can be expected to survive without major changes. In fact, one of the main reasons for the decline of psychoanalysis is that the ideas of Freud and his followers have gained little empirical support.’
Meanwhile, supporters of Freud point to an enduring influence on our understanding of the unconscious, defence mechanisms and talking therapy. Whilst true, question marks still hang over his thoughts on psychosexual development and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Health (DSM) has abandoned psychodynamic causation, for what was once ‘Hysteria’ but which became ‘Conversion Disorder’ and then ‘Functional Neurological Disorder’. Nonetheless, his legacy seems solid as the unveiling of a statue in Vienna in June 2018, showed.
Just as impactful was Carl Jung, whose form of analytical psychoanalysis shared Freud’s journey into the inner world but with a metaphysical angle, instead. It seems his collective unconscious opened the door to his famous archetypes which define as an inherited idea or symbolism shared across the planet, regardless of race or culture. So, the idea of a hero, for example, is an archetypal archetype in merging the definition with an original model or typicality.
Then, along with the: Jester; Sage; Lover and Explorer and the Outlaw; Ruler; Magician and Caregiver, as well as the Creator; Innocent and Everyman, it feeds a sense of self as we identify with one or more of these labels. There are others, too, such as the Guardian or the Shadow and the Immature, and we often find them represented vividly, in the arts. So, Jung’s work has proved far-reaching with something like the Myers-Briggs Indicator in aligning itself, with his personality types. Yet, even though it’s unsupported scientifically and unlinked to Jung directly, it’s been used in business for many years as a tool determining character traits.
‘Man’s main task in life is to give birth to himself, to become what he potentially is. The most important product of his effort is his own personality.’
Erich Fromm
Another influential area in the psychological model, is Attachment Theory. Developed by John Bowlby, in 1958, it’s become one of the most widely used concepts in clinical history but this early work in the field of childhood attachment provoked controversy, with its repercussions for women. You see, his initial studies helped to suggest that a child’s primary source of emotional security came through a mother or mother-figure, alone. With this arriving at the end of World War Two and an expectation for women to leave the workplace, partly to give way to returning men: its impact was huge. Yet, Bowlby was nothing if not careful because over time, he changed his findings to assert that his earlier conclusions were wrong and that, specifically, a time-critical window for attachment in infancy was also incorrect.
So, along with Mary Ainsworth and her ‘Strange Situation’ paradigm, his eventual work on Attachment Theory is his real legacy and it’s left us all talking about four particular attachment styles. Secure attachment; anxious attachment; avoidant attachment and anxious-avoidant attachment are measures we use, to understand a personal approach to relationships. Interestingly, Bowlby came to disagree with Sigmund Freud’s work due to its lack of empirical strength and he engaged in an ongoing difference of opinion with Anna Freud’s professional nemesis, Melanie Klein. In the end, though, it’s possible to describe the psychological approach to mental health with a quote from a 2005 study, called: ‘A Psychological Model of Mental Disorder’.
‘Psychological formulation is the summation and integration of the knowledge that is required through the assessment process. Psychological formulations attempt to explain why people are experiencing difficulties. They usually consist of a list of problems and possible psychological reasons for these.’
It’s true, the origins of our problems are varied and complex from the structure of your family, to the dynamics of a workplace. Beyond that, the social forces pushing and pulling us every which way affect how we think in a number of ways. So, how we cope depends on our knowledge and level of self-understanding but fortunately there are people trained to listen, when we don’t know which way to turn.
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Images:
Surreal Woman, by Alana Jordan, Pîxabay – Main Image
Hospital Corridor, by Claudia Wollesen, Pixabay
Drugs on the Ward, by Tung Art 7, Pixabay
Sigmund Freud, by Jane B13
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